Which of the Following Involves the Use of Computers to Observe Record and Review

Observational Field Enquiry

This web page is designed as an introduction to the bones issues and design options in observational research within natural settings. Observational research techniques solely involve the researcher or researchers making observations. There are many positive aspects of the observational research approach. Namely, observations are usually flexible and practise not necessarily need to be structured around a hypothesis (think a hypothesis is a statement about what you wait to observe). For instance, before undertaking more structured research a researcher may conduct observations in society to form a research question. This is called descriptive inquiry. In terms of validity, observational research findings are considered to be potent. Trochim states that validity is the all-time available approximation to the truth of a given proposition, inference, or determination. Observational inquiry findings are considered potent in validity because the researcher is able to collect a depth of data about a particular behavior. All the same, at that place are negative aspects. At that place are problems with reliability and generalizability. Reliability refers the extent that observations can exist replicated. Seeing behaviors occur over and over once again may exist a time consuming task. Generalizability, or external validity, is described by Trochim as the extent that the study'south findings would also be true for other people, in other places, and at other times. In observational enquiry, findings may but reflect a unique population and therefore cannot exist generalized to others. There are also issues with researcher bias. Often it is assumed that the researcher may "come across what they desire to meet." Bias, notwithstanding, can oft be overcome with training or electronically recording observations. Hence, overall, observations are a valuable tool for researchers.

Showtime this Spider web Page will discuss the advisable situations to use observational field enquiry. 2d, the various types of observations research methods are explained. Finally, observational variables are discussed. This folio's emphasis is on the collection rather the assay of data.

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Afterwards reading this web page, you should be able to

1. Empathize the advantages and disadvantages of observational research compared to other research methods.
2. Empathize the strengths and weaknesses in the validity of observational inquiry findings.
3. Know what Direct Ascertainment is and some of the chief concerns of using this method.
4. Know what Continuos Monitoring is and what types of research it is appropriate for.
5. Understand Time Resource allotment research and why yous would want to use it.
6. Know why unobtrusive research is a sticky proposition.
7. Understand the validity issues when discussing unobtrusive observation.
8. Know what to exercise in a beliefs trace study.
9. Consider when to acquit a disguised field experiment.
10. Know the observational variables.

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Should yous or shouldn't yous collect your data through ascertainment?

Questions to consider:

Is the topic sensitive?

Are people uncomfortable or unwilling to answer questions near a particular subject area? For instance, many people are uncomfortable when asked about prejudice. Self-reports of prejudice frequently bring biased answers. Instead, a researcher may choose to discover black and white students interactions. In this case, observations are more likely to bring near more than accurate data. Thus, sensitive social problems are better suited for observational research.

Tin can you lot observe the Phenomena?

You lot must exist able to discover what is relevant to your study. Let's face it, you could discover and observe but if you never meet what your studying your wasting your time. Yous can't encounter attitudes. Although you can detect behaviors and make inferences about attitudes. Likewise, you tin can't be everywhere. There are sure things you can't observe. For example, questions regarding sexual behavior are better left to a survey.

Do y'all have a lot of time?

Many people don't realize that observational research may be time consuming. In order to obtain reliability, behaviors must exist observed several times. In add-on, in that location is also a concern that the observer's presence may alter the behaviors being observed. As time goes on, all the same, the subjects are more likely to grow accustomed to your presence and deed normally. Information technology is in the researchers best interest to observe for a long period of fourth dimension.

Are you non certain what your looking for?

That'south okay! Known as descriptive research, observations are a neat fashion to get-go a inquiry project. Let's say you are interested in male and female behavior in bars. You have no thought what theory to employ or what behavior you are interested in looking for. So, you watch, and, wow, yous see something. Like the amount of touching is related to booze consumption. So you run to the library, assemble your research, and perchance determine to do more observations or supplement your report with surveys. Then, these observations turn into a theory once they are replicated (well, information technology's not quite that elementary). And so you lot meet, observations are a good identify to start.

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Types of Observations

Okay, so you've decided that you think observational research is for yous. Now y'all merely take to pick which kind of observation to exercise.

• Direct (Reactive) Ascertainment
  In direct observations, people know that you are watching them. The just danger is that they are reacting to you lot. As stated before, there is a business organisation that individuals will modify their actions rather than showing yous what they're Actually like. This is not necessarily bad, however. For instance, the contrived beliefs may reveal aspects of social desirability, how they feel almost sharing their feelings in front of others, or privacy in a relationship. Fifty-fifty the nigh contrived behavior is difficult to maintain over time. A long term observational study will often catch a glimpse of the natural behavior. Other problems concern the generalizability of findings. The sample of individuals may not be representative of the population or the behaviors observed are not representative of the individual (you lot defenseless the person on a bad day). Again, long-term observational studies will often overcome the problem of external validity. What most upstanding problems you say? Ethically, people see yous, they know you are watching them (sounds spooky, I know) and they can ask you to stop.

  Now hither are ii commonly used types of direct observations:

  1. Continuous Monitoring:
     Continuos monitoring (CM) involves observing a subject or subjects and recording (either manually, electronically, or both) as much of their behavior every bit possible. Continuos Monitoring is ofttimes used in organizational settings, such as evaluating performance. However this may be problematic due to the Hawthorne Effect. The Hawthorne Effect states that workers react to the attention they are getting from the researchers and in turn, productivity increases. Observers should be aware of this reaction. Other CM inquiry is used in education, such as watching teacher-student interactions. Also in nutrition where researchers record how much an individual eats. CM is relatively like shooting fish in a barrel only a time consuming effort. Y'all will be sure to acquire a lot of data.
  2. Time Allocation:
     Time Allocation (TA) involves a researcher randomly selecting a place and time and so recording what people are doing when they are first seen and before they run into you. This may sound rather baroque only it is a useful tool when you want to detect out the percent of time people are doing things (i.e. playing with their kids, working, eating, etc.). Thereare several sampling problems with this approach. First, in social club to brand generalizations most how people are spending their time the researcher needs a large representative sample. Sneaking up on people all over boondocks is tough way to spend your days. In add-on, questions such as when, how ofttimes, and where should you observe are often a concern. Many researchers accept overcome these issues past using nonrandom locations but randomly visiting them at dissimilar times.

• Unobtrusive Observation:
  Unobtrusive measures involves whatever method for studying behavior where individuals do Non know they are being observed (don't you hate to call back that this could have happened to y'all!). Here, there is not the concern that the observer may change the subject'south behavior. When conducting unobtrusive observations, bug of validity need to be considered. Numerous observations of a representative sample need to take identify in order to generalize the findings. This is especially hard when looking at a detail group. Many groups posses unique characteristics which brand them interesting studies. Hence, oftentimes such findings are not strong in external validity. Also, replication is difficult when using non-conventional measures (non-conventional meaning unobtrusive observation). Observations of a very specific behaviors are hard to replicate in studies especially if the researcher is a group participant (we'll talk more than about this later). The master problem with unobtrusive measures, notwithstanding, is ethical. Issues involving informed consent and invasion of privacy are paramount here. An institutional review board may frown upon your written report if it is not really necessary for you not to inform your subjects.

  Here is a description of two types of unobtrusive research measures you may decide to undertake in the field:

  1. Behavior Trace studies:
     Behavior trace studies involve findings things people go out behind and interpreting what they mean. This can be anything to vandalism to garbage. The University of Arizona Garbage Projection one of the almost well-known trace studies. Anthropologists and students dug through household garbage to find out nigh such things as nutrient preferences, waste behavior, and booze consumption. Once more, remember, that in unobtrusive research individuals practise not know they are existence studied. How would yous feel about someone going through your garbage? Surprisingly Tucson residents supported the research as long as their identities were kept confidential. As you might imagine, trace studies may yield enormous data.
  2. Disguised Field Observations:
     Okay, this gets a little sticky. In Bearded field analysis the researcher pretends to join or actually is a member of a group and records data about that grouping. The group does not know they are being observed for research purposes. Here, the observer may take on a number of roles. First, the observer may decide to become a consummate-participant in which they are studying something they are already a member of. For instance, if you are a member of a sorority and written report female conflict inside sororities you lot would be considered a consummate-participant observer. On the other hand you may decide to only participate casually in the group while collecting observations. In this example, any contact with grouping members is by acquaintance only. Here you would exist considered an observer-participant. Finally, if you develop an identity with the group members but practice non appoint in important group activities consider yourself a participant-observer. An example would be joining a cult but not participating in whatsoever of their of import rituals (such as sacraficing animals). You are all the same, considered a member of the cult and trusted past all of the members. Ethically, participant-observers have the most issues. Certainly at that place are degrees of deception at work. The sensitivity of the topic and the degree of confidentiality are important issues to consider. Watching classmates struggle with test-anxiety is a lot different than joining Alcoholics Anonymous. In all, disguised field experiments are likely to yield reliable data but the ethical dilemmas are a trade-off.

An Interesting Side Note:
The protection of human rights from unethical research practices was heightened equally a consequence of the Nazi regime in Germany. The Nuremberg Code was adopted following the trials of the 20-three Nazi physicians convicted of crimes confronting humanity. This Code provided a argument apropos the rights of human participants to exist informed and freely choose to participate in inquiry. The Nuremberg Code has since influenced policies of upstanding enquiry practices in several countries.

Federal Register (1991). Federal policy for the protection of human subjects; notices and rules, part II. Federal register, 56, 28001-28032.

Observational Variables

Before yous showtime on a enquiry project brand sure yous how you are going to translate your observations.

1. Descriptive:
   Descriptive observational variables require no inference making on the part of the researcher. Yous run across something and write information technology downward.
2. Inferential:
   Inferential observational variables crave the researcher to make inferences most what is observed and the underlying emotion. For case, you may discover a girl banging on her keyboard. From this observation you may assume (correctly) that she is frustrated with the computer.
3. Evaluative:
   Evaluative observational variables require the researcher to make an inference and a judgment from the beliefs. For example, you may question whether computers and humans have a positive human relationship. "Positive" is an evaluative judgment. You observe the girl banging on her keyboard and conclude that humans and computers do not have a positive relationship (y'all know you must replicate these findings!).

When writing field notes the researcher should include descriptive as well equally inferential data. It is important to describe the setting and the mood in a detailed manner. All such things that may change behavior need to be noted. Specially reflect upon your presence. Do y'all think that you inverse the behavior noticeably?

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Okay, so this is a lot to call up. Go back up to the cheque-list of "things you should exist able to..." and inquire yourself some questions. Recollect, observations are a bang-up manner to beginning and add together to a research projection.

Good luck observing!

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References
and Suggested Reading
Babbie, Due east. (1992). The practice of social research. (6th ed.). Affiliate 11. California: Wadsworth.

Bernard, R. (1994). Research methods in anthropology. (second ed.) Chapters xiv-15. California: AltaMira.

Gall, One thousand., Borg., & Gall, J. (1996). Educational research. (6th ed.). Chapter ix. New York: Longman.

Montgomery, B. & Duck, S. (1991). Studying interpersonal interaction. Chapter eleven. New York: Guilford.

And HIGHLY RECOMMENDED is Trochim's Knowledge Base which is packed with information nigh validity and research design.

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Laura Brown
Comments: LAB19@Cornell.Edu
Cheers for Coming!

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nashsamboy.blogspot.com

Source: https://faculty.washington.edu/wpratt/MEBI598/Methods/Collecting%20Data%20Through%20Observation.htm

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